O-R-T-H-O-G-R-A-P-H-I-C: Orthographic Mapping and Spelling Instruction

Recently examined were the parts of reading based on what is heard, by defining and exploring phonological and phonemic awareness. We know that reading cannot be done with auditory learning alone, though. This is where orthographic skills come into play in the game of literacy.

What is Orthographic Awareness?

Orthographic awareness is not as easily defined or understood like its counterparts of phonemic or phonological awareness. Orthographic knowledge is done mentally and is not seen or heard. Human nature tells us that reading is a visual process - the more you read, the more words you see, the more times you see a word, you memorize it. Research has debunked that theory, though. As experienced readers, we can read words in different fonts, handwriting, and in capital and lowercase letters. If that is the case, then we are not simply taking a picture of a word with our brain to store until we find it again in a future text. 

Orthographic awareness is defined as the “formation of letter-sound connections to bond the spellings, pronunciations, and meanings of specific words in memory” (Ehri, 2013). It includes alphabetic knowledge (knowing s makes the /s/ sound), orthographic pattern knowledge (ck cannot be used in the initial position in a syllable), and storage of representations of spellings in long term memory (knowing the letter sequence of hour is h-o-u-r rather than o-u-r) (Gillon, 2018). Orthographic mapping explains how children learn to read words by sight, spell words from memory, and gain vocabulary knowledge through words in print (Ehri, 2013). In other words, orthographic mapping is how a word’s pronunciation is “mapped” to specific letters or spelling (Wilson, 2022). Simply put, “orthographic mapping is when the oral language we know combines with the written form to create sight words.  The letter strings are both familiar and meaningful, and so we store them away until we need to read them, seemingly effortlessly.  When we see a string of letters that have meaning to us, our brains automatically pull that word and its meaning out” (Campbell, 2021).

Phases in Spelling Development

One of the largest parts of orthographic awareness is sight words and spelling. Spelling success comes from language knowledge, not from memorized letter sequencing. It has been discovered that students actually move through a series of phases in spelling development (Gillon, 2013).

1. Precommunicative Spelling: In this phase of development, students’ writing attempts may appear scribble-like with only a small amount of letter form resemblance. Familiar letters, such as those in the student’s name, may be found in the string of writing; however unfamiliar letters show no phonology connection for the intended word.

2. Semiphonetic Spelling: Just as the name suggests, students in this phase of development are starting to show their understanding of how letters are used to represent sounds in words. Here, partial mapping between letters and sounds is demonstrated. This could look like the word you being spelled as u. 

3. Phonetic Spelling: The phonetic spelling phase involves closer efforts to spelling a word the way it sounds. The main phonemes are present, but more complex phoneme-grapheme connections may still be lacking. Vowel teams or consonant digraphs may not be fully represented, such as the final /k/ in track with the ck or the /o/ in boat being made with the oa. 

4. Transitional Phase: In this final phase of development, the student shows his/her knowledge of orthographic conventions in spelling. Reading and vocabulary exposure helps guide spelling skills in the transitional phase. Syllable awareness and morphological knowledge are used. The student displays an integration of phonological awareness with visual orthographic knowledge, and the mastery of correct spelling begins to emerge.

Orthographic Instructional Practices

The best practices for spelling and orthographic mapping instruction can be debated, but if teachers hold tight to the ideas in the Science of Reading, then orthographic mapping will combine with the phonological pieces of reading and produce a well read, proficient spelling student. Explicit instruction should take place on phonemic knowledge. First, phonemes should be identified in spoken words and how they link to letters. Secondly, systematically teaching how to decode and encode a word is imperative. This includes word analysis, such as identifying syllables and morphemes. Finally, reading connected texts will lead to an increase in automaticity, fluency, and comprehension (Wilson, 2022).

Spelling Activities

For the beginning reader and speller, using songs and games for letter-sound recognition is the place to start. Using letter tiles, magnetic letters, or letter stickers to display, name, and match with a given sound is a hands-on, engaging way for students to show this mastery or spell out certain words.

For more knowledgeable students, Scoop and Spell will show how advanced a child is in his/her orthographic awareness and spelling development phase. Letters are put into a bucket, and the child “scoops” out a handful. Ask the child to spell as many words as he can with the letters he scooped out. Try three letter words, then four letter words, and continue the pattern. Once he has exhausted words with that group of letters, put them back in the bucket, shake it up, and scoop again. Visit the website here for the full details of Scoop and Spell (Spence, 2018).

        For the advanced and automatic spellers, their practice should continue to foster their knowledge of phonics, but be playful and engaging too. Playing word games like Scrabble and competing in friendly spelling bees will continue to grow their progress and introduce them to new words too.

Intervention Approaches

For struggling readers and spellers, explicit instruction in phoneme segmentation and letter-sound relationships is most beneficial. Using letters written on Lego pieces to literally build words is visual and hands-on for these students. Start with the student’s strength and build from that foundation. If the student knows single consonant sounds and short vowels o and e, have them build a chain of words with those letters: cob, belt, slop.Word sorts are a way to develop orthographic patterns. Students can sort words to determine, for example, when to use ck for the /k/ sound, like in truck or chicken versus a c or k for the /k/ sound, like in cake or soak (Moats et al., 2021).

        Word sorts are a way to develop orthographic patterns. Students can sort words to determine, for example, when to use ck for the /k/ sound, like in truck or chicken versus a c or k for the /k/ sound, like in cake or soak (Moats et al., 2021).

        It is important to teach one pattern at a time with students who struggle with decoding and spelling. Start small with spelling one syllable words and work through the progression to multisyllabic words. 

        Whatever the strategy used, make spelling and orthographic practice fun so that students will develop a love of word knowledge.

References

Campbell, S. (2021, September 15). Orthographic mapping. Campbell Creates Readers.
Retrieved October 14, 2022, from
https://www.campbellcreatesreaders.com/blog/orthographicmapping 

Ehri, L. C. (2013, September 26). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word
reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Retrieved October 14, 2022, from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356 

Gillon, G. T. (2018). Phonological awareness: From research to practice (Second). The Guilford
Press. 

Moats, L., & Cheri Williams, C. P.-B. (2021, June 1). Spelling: In practice. Reading Rockets.
Retrieved October 14, 2022, from
https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading101-course/modules/spelling/
spelling-practice

Spence, B. (2018, June 20). Scoop & Spell - a word building and spelling activity. This Reading
Mama. Retrieved October 14, 2022, from
https://thisreadingmama.com/scoop-spell-spelling-activity/ 

Wilson, B. A. (2022, March 26). Advanced orthographic mapping - middle tennessee state
university. Wilson Language Training. Retrieved October 14, 2022, from
http://www.mtsu.edu/dyslexia/foxConference/2022/Advanced_Orthographic_Mapping
_03.24.22.pdf

A Peek into PreK: Phonemic Awareness Activities for the Littlest Learners

In the last blog post, I discussed the importance and components of phonological awareness. Among those components, we find phonemic awareness. Many times these two terms are used interchangeably, but phonemic awareness is a specific part of phonological awareness. It is one of the most important parts of establishing a solid phonological awareness foundation. Simply put, “phonemic awareness is first and foremost about listening to and being able to distinguish the distinctive sounds of a language. It is the ability to understand and manipulate the sounds of a language orally” (Gibbons, 2015, p. 170). In short, phonemic awareness is all about using the ears and not the eyes when it comes to language and reading.

                                                                                       (Photo From: https://phonicshero.com/phonemic-awareness/)

Phonemes are the smallest units of spoken words. There are 44 phonemes in the English language. Changing just one phoneme can alter the meaning of a word. Phoneme blending, segmentation, substitution, deletion, addition, and isolation are vital lessons to master at the pre-reading level in order to ensure later reading success (Houston, 2022). Prekindergarten and kindergarten classrooms are full of phonemic awareness activities on a daily basis. The following are engaging activities that can be implemented in such classrooms to develop strong phonemic awareness.

Elkonin Boxes

Elkonin boxes are a popular tool in early childhood classrooms. They are used to specifically focus on phoneme segmentation. Students count the sounds in a given word, and then they move a chip or counter into each box to represent each sound (Virtual teaching resource hub: instructional activities phonemic awareness, n.d.).

Word Sorting
While sorting games help develop a variety of skills for young learners, word sorting can help boost phonemic awareness too. Students are shown pictures, they name the pictures provided, and sort them based on the number of phonemes (or can be done with syllables) within the given word. View the video of this activity in action provided by the University of Florida Literacy Institute here.

Phoneme Dominoes     This spin on the classic dominoes game will have students searching for matching phonemes. The first student will place the START domino card face up and state the word the picture on the domino card represents. He will then look for a domino with a picture that has the same initial sound as the starting word, name it, and say the initial sound. Then the student will connect the two dominoes. The next student will say the name of the picture next to the domino that was previously played and repeat the process. This link provides the materials and instructions needed for Phoneme Dominoes, designed by the Florida Center for Reading Research. A video example of the game being played can also be viewed here.

Spin a Letter

This activity involves initial phonemes of words, but it can easily be adapted to practice medial and final sounds too. A cardboard or interactive electronic spinner can be used. A favorite electronic spinner used in my classroom is Picker Wheel. Students spin the wheel, and whichever letter the spinner lands on, they must give a word that starts with that phoneme. This could be played in teams, as a whole class, in small groups, or individually.

Jump, Skip, Hop

For the little learner who needs to be active, this activity incorporates phonemic knowledge and movement. Create simple picture cards that you find online, draw, or cut out of magazines. Show the card to the child. The child should identify the picture (say the word) and stretch it out to determine the number of phonemes. For example, if the card shows a pig, the child would say, “Pig. /p/ /i/ /g/.” Since there were three phonemes in the spoken word, the child would do three jumping jacks, skips, or hops in place.

Playing and Learning with Phonemes

No matter the game or activity used, phonemic awareness is a necessary skill for emerging readers, and it is one that can be taught and practiced with interactive, engaging methods. Phonemic awareness is the most sophisticated of the phonological awareness skills and is one of the greatest predictors of future reading success (Phonological and phonemic awareness: Activities for your kindergartener, 2022). By practicing these pre-reading skills in the early childhood education classrooms, elementary and secondary classrooms will be full of robust readers.

References

Gibbons, P. (2015). In Scaffolding language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching English language

learners in the mainstream classroom (pp. 169-179). essay, Heinemann.

Houston, S. (2022, April 29). What is phonemic awareness?: Phonics hero. What is Phonemic 

Awareness The Foundation for Reading and Spelling Success Comments. Retrieved

September 29, 2022, from https://phonicshero.com/phonemic-awareness/

Kindergarten and first grade student center activities. Florida Center for Reading Research.
(n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://fcrr.org/student-center-activities/
kindergarten-and-first-grade#sca3

Phonological and phonemic awareness: Activities for your kindergartener. Reading Rockets.
(2022, September 28). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.
org/reading-101-guide-parents/kindergarten/phonological-and-phonemic-awareness-
activities-your-kindergartner

Virtual teaching resource hub: instructional activities phonemic awareness. UF Literacy
Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://ufli.education.ufl.edu/
resources/teaching-resources/instructional-activities/phonemic-awareness/

I know the term, but what does it actually mean? All About Phonological Awareness

        Phonics and phonemic awareness, syntax and semantics, graphemes, morphemes, and phonemes…oh my! The plethora of literacy skill terminology can be daunting to understand. All of these ideas are branches of the tree that is phonological awareness, which is a multi-level skill that can be broken down into many levels (Gillon, 2018). Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness are two literary terms that are often used simultaneously; however, the two concepts have very specific meanings and distinct components. Phonological awareness is the overarching idea over all things literacy based. It is the umbrella, if you will, that covers an array of skills needed for successful readers. Phonological awareness is defined as “the ability to hear and manipulate the sound structure of language” (University of Oregon Center on Teaching and Learning, 2009). It encompasses working with sounds at the word, syllable, and phoneme levels. 

(https://sites.google.com/site/literacyresourcewebsite/home/phonemic-awareness)

A child’s phonological awareness is one of the most important indicators of early reading performance and literacy achievement (Gillon, 2018). In fact, “awareness of the phonological structure of a word helps children draw connections between the spoken form of a word and its written representation” (Gillon, 2018, p. 3). In other words, strong phonological awareness leads to better reading, a solid foundation of vocabulary, and deeper comprehension. 

As previously stated, phonological awareness is a multilevel skill that involves breaking down words into smaller units. This includes syllable awareness, onset and rime awareness, and phonemic awareness (Gillon, 2018). Each of these processes is distinct in skill, but they all work together to develop a reader.

Syllable Awareness

Phonological awareness at the syllable level requires a reader’s understanding that words can be divided into syllables. Activity ideas to support syllable awareness include (Gillon, 2018):

• syllable segmentation: “We can clap out the syllables for hamburger like this - ham…bur…ger. Now you clap out the syllables for spaghetti.”

• syllable blending: “I am going to say parts of a word slowly, what word do I get when I put the word parts together? Pen…cil.  Pencil!”

• syllable identity: “What part of misbehavior and misspell sound the same?”

Visit the Reading Rockets website for more syllable awareness activities developed by the Florida Center for Reading Research, such as the one below:

Onset-Rime Awareness

Understanding of onset-rime takes syllable awareness to a deeper level. The onset of a given word is the initial phonological unit of word (the letters prior to the first vowel), while the rime is known as the string of letters that follow (the vowel and final consonants) (Reading Rockets, 2022). For example, in the word story, st is the onset and ory is the rime. Gillon (2018) suggests these activities to measure onset-rime awareness:

• rhyme detection: “Do these words rhyme: mouse - house?”

• rhyme oddity task: “Which word does not rhyme: bed, head, book?”

• rhyme generation: “I’m going to say a word, and I want you to tell me a word that rhymes with it. Tell me a word that rhymes with ball.”

I liked the many skills this Onset and Rime Slides activity encompassed, including decoding, vowel/consonant knowledge, and real words versus nonsense words. You can access the entire activity and materials here.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are made from individual sounds. This is the building block for decoding, and includes phoneme blending, deletion, and segmentation. To measure phonemic awareness, there is great value in the following tasks (Gillon, 2018):

• alliteration awareness: “Which word has a different first sound: cat, cub, desk, cold?”

• phoneme matching: “Which word starts with the /r/ sound like rich: rake, ball, itch?”

• phoneme blending: “What word do these sounds make: /r/ /ea/ /d/?”

• phoneme deletion: “Say hot. Say hot again, but do not say the /h/.”

• phoneme segmentation: “How many sounds do you hear in dog?”

The Literacy How website offers teacher tips and interactive activities to heighten children’s awareness of letter sounds and developing words. One tip is to practice phonemic awareness throughout the day. Giving instructions, such as “Line up for recess if your name starts with /s/,” can easily be turned into an “I Spy a Word” game because it can be done anywhere, at any time. Instead of spying an object of a certain color, an item that begins with a specific sound is found, “I spy, with my little eye, something that starts with /b/.” 

Wrapping It All Up

The many skills of phonological awareness are “strongly interrelated…However, the tasks do differ in their degree of difficulty and level of linguistic complexity” (Gillon, 2018, p. 8). Most importantly, children need to be given the opportunity to play with language. Through games, rhyming, songs, and daily conversation, students are presented with the chance to use the components of phonological awareness in their everyday environments. While it may seem like an overwhelming task at first, once broken down into the various strands, you can hold up the phonological awareness umbrella with confidence and have reading success pour down on your students!

References

Gillon, G. T. (2018). 1 Phonological Awareness Defined. In Phonological awareness: From 

research to practice (pp. 1-12). essay, The Guilford Press.

Phonemic Awareness. Literacy How. (2021, December 20). Retrieved September 21, 2022, from
https://literacyhow.org/phonemic-awareness/

Phonological and phonemic awareness. Reading Rockets. (2016, April 14). Retrieved September

19, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/helping/target/phonologicalphonemic

Submitted by Pilar South (not verified) on July 12. (2022, March 2.) Onset/rime games: 

Classroom strategy. Reading Rockets. Retrieved September 19, 2022, from

https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/onset_rime

University of Oregon Center on Teaching and Learning. (2009, July 17). Big ideas in beginning

reading. Big Ideas in Beginning Reading. Retrieved September 18, 2022, from
http://reading.uoregon.edu/

Teacher Text Time: Teacher Picks for Biographies and Informational Texts

Welcome to the first edition of Teacher Text Time! From time to time, I will be compiling a list of my personal favorite titles in my classroom or series my students and I have come to love. Today's list are my picks for biographies and/or informational texts. Do you have a favorite informational text author or series?  If so, please feel free to share in the comments!

Baker, Courtney. 2001. Let's Read About Martin Luther King, Jr. Illustrated by Cornelius Van Wright and Ying-Hwa         Hu. Scholastic.

Berger, Melvin and Gilda. 2010. True or False Rocks & Minerals. Scholastic.

Cole, Joanna. 1994. The Magic School Bus In the Time of the Dinosaurs. Illustrated by Bruce Degen. Scholastic.

Fritz, Jean. 1987. Shh! We're Writing the Constitution. Illustrated by Tomie dePaola. Scholastic.

Gibbons, Gail. 1992. Recycle! Little, Brown and Company.

Gilliland, Ben. 2012. 100 People Who Made History. Illustrated by Philip Parker. Dorling Kindersley Limited

Goldsmith, Mike. 2011. Amazing Space Q&A. Dorling Kindersley Limited.

Krull, Kathleen. 2013. What Was the March on Washington? Illustrated by Tim Tomkinson. Scholastic.

Pallotta, Jerry. 2017. Who Would Win? Jaguar vs. Skunk. Illustrated by Rob Bolster. Scholastic.

Roop, Connie and Peter. 2003. Let's Fly, Wilbur and Orville! Scholastic.

Roop, Connie and Peter. 2007. Tales of Famous Americans. Illustrated by Charlie Powell. Scholastic.

Roop, Connie and Peter. 2010. Tales of Famous Heroes. Illustrated by Rebecca Zomcheck. Scholastic.

Roop, Connie and Peter. 2012. Tales of Famous Animals. Illustrated by Zachary Pullen. Scholastic.

Satterfield, Kathryn Hoffman. 2005. Benjamin Franklin: A Man of Many Talents. Time Inc.

Simon, Seymour. 1992. Our Solar System. Scholastic.

Schreiber, Anne. 2010. National Geographic Kids: Pandas. National Geographic Society.

Be sure to check out more informational text titles from these publishers, authors, and series:

• Adler, David (children's book biography author)
• Bishop, Nic (author and photographer of animal books)
• Cole, Joanna (author of The Magic School Bus series)
• DK Publishing
• Gibbons, Gail (author of informational picture books for kids)
• National Geographic Kids
• Scholastic Chapter Book Biography series
• Scholastic First Biographies series
• Scholastic True or False series
• Simon, Seymour (author of natural science books)
• St. George, Judith (author of presidential books)
• Time for Kids Biographies series
• Who Was/What Was series (Scholastic)
• Who Would Win? series (Scholastic)

Best Practices for Informational Texts

  It is important for students of all ages to be immersed in authentic literature, but it is equally important for students to be readers of informational texts as well. Informational texts open up worlds to the reader he/she may not know about. Since non-fiction books for children are divided into two main categories of biography or information, students are introduced to well known people, art, history, animals, sports, the environment, science, and many more topics through informational texts (Young et al., 2020).         Many adults hold negative feelings or memories from reading informational texts as young children, but informational texts today are “attractive and appealing” (Young et al., 2020, p. 208). Expository books have the power to stir readers’ interests and inspire passions. That is the way we have to capture children’s attention and motivate them to choose informational texts, as well as their favorite novel. As educators, we must share with our students the endless possibilities of things they can learn from informational texts.         Biographies are one type of informational text that can draw in a young audience. Biographies commonly portray the lives and stories of individuals with memorable personalities, careers, or accomplishments (Young et al., 2020). Biographies are no longer limited to people of the past, but now include those who are making present impacts in the world. Young readers are willing to read an informational text if it includes photographs, life stories, and is about a popular athlete, actress, or even a beloved author. These authentic biographies have taken on a new trend, structured like novels, but being read as “vigorous and enjoyable as good fiction” (Young et al., 2020, p. 191).         In order to put more expository texts in the hands of young readers, educators must evaluate the texts and consider the 5 A’s.  These include: authority of the author. How qualified is the author to write on the topic of the text? Next is accuracy of the text content. Did the author conduct research and establish reliability in the book? Third is the appropriateness of the book for the intended audience. Is the text in child friendly language if written for children? Does the author talk down to the readers? Then comes the artistry of literacy. Is the writing of the text quality? Does it engage the reader and present the information with voice and narrative devices? Lastly is the appearance of the book. Are there visual components to the book so that students will select that book instead of reject it (Young et al., 2020, pp. 209-210)?          Other best practices to consider when choosing informational books for a classroom library are to determine if the book will catch the reader’s attention. Just by thumbing through a text within a minute or two, we should be looking for attractive designs, little-known facts, unusual viewpoints, fascinating comparisons, or first-person accounts (Young et al., 2020).          The fiction genre encompasses many different writing styles, such as drama, poetry, novels, short stories, and more. The same is true for the non-fiction genre. Informational books can be written in many forms. Some of these formats are similar to fiction counterparts, such as traditional chapter books, informational picture books, concept books, and series. Others include activity books (which engage the reader beyond the reading), information in verse, journals and interviews, and reference books. Finally, another set of informational texts are geared towards the visual learner with graphic nonfiction, photo essays, pop-ups, and three-dimensional books (Young et al., 2020).         By following these best practice guidelines for informational texts, it will not be long before our young readers are found to be choosing nonfiction books for making new discoveries and pleasure reading in the classroom.

References

Young, T.A., Bryan, G., Jacobs, J.S., & Tunnel, M.O. (2020). Children’s literature, briefly
(7th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.